Khaled Hammouda

Tasks

We're starting to accumulate a number of things about the user program that the kernel needs to track: the user page table, the user stack, the kernel switch stack, and the user rsp when executing syscall. These are all currently tracked in global variables. Once we start having more than one user task, it will be hard to keep track of all these things.

Task definition

Let's define a Task type to encapsulate all this information. This will prepare us for having multiple tasks. Let's create a new module tasks.nim for this.

# src/kernel/tasks.nim

import common/pagetables
import vmm

type
  TaskStack* = object
    data*: ptr uint8
    size*: uint64
    bottom*: uint64

  Task* = ref object
    id*: uint64
    pml4*: ptr PML4Table
    ustack*: TaskStack
    kstack*: TaskStack
    rsp*: uint64

var
  nextId*: uint64 = 0

Each task has a unique id, a pointer to its page table, and two stacks: one for user mode and one for kernel mode. The rsp field is where the user stack pointer is stored when the task is executing in kernel mode (e.g. when executing a system call). We also define a TaskStack type to encapsulate the stack address, size, and the bottom of the stack (i.e. the address just beyond the end of the stack). The nextId variable will be used to assign unique IDs to each task.

Before we can start creating tasks, we need a way to allocate virtual memory within an address space. Let's add a few things to the virtual memory manager to support this.

Address space abstraction

For a particular address space, we need to track which regions are currently allocated, and a way to allocate more regions. We'll use this to allocate the user stack and kernel stack. To make it easy to refer to a particular address space, and track which regions are currently allocated in it, we'll define a VMAddressSpace type.

# src/kernel/vmm.nim

type
  VMRegion* = object
    start: VirtAddr
    npages: uint64

  VMAddressSpace* = object
    minAddress*: VirtAddr
    maxAddress*: VirtAddr
    regions*: seq[VMRegion]
    pml4*: ptr PML4Table

Notice that I also defined a VMRegion type to represent a contiguous region of virtual memory. Notice also that I defined two fields minAddress and maxAddress in VMAddressSpace to track the minimum and maximum addresses in the address space. This will make it easy to confine the address space to the lower half (for user space) or upper half (for kernel space) of the virtual address space.

Let's make a slight modification to the Task type to use the new VMAddressSpace type instead of a pointer to a PML4Table.

  Task* = ref object
    id*: uint64
    space*: VMAddressSpace
    ustack*: TaskStack
    kstack*: TaskStack
    rsp*: uint64


 



Let's now add a proc to allocate virtual memory in an address space.

# src/kernel/vmm.nim
import std/algorithm
...

proc vmalloc*(
  space: var VMAddressSpace,
  pageCount: uint64,
  pageAccess: PageAccess,
  pageMode: PageMode,
): Option[VirtAddr] =
  # find a free region
  var virtAddr: VirtAddr = space.minAddress
  for region in space.regions:
    if virtAddr +! pageCount * PageSize <= region.start:
      break
    virtAddr = region.start +! region.npages * PageSize

  # allocate physical memory and map it
  let  physAddr = pmalloc(pageCount).get # TODO: handle allocation failure
  mapRegion(space.pml4, virtAddr, physAddr, pageCount, pageAccess, pageMode)

  # add the region to the address space
  space.regions.add VMRegion(start: virtAddr, npages: pageCount)

  # sort the regions by start address
  space.regions = space.regions.sortedByIt(it.start)

  result = some virtAddr

The vmalloc proc finds a free region in the address space, allocates physical memory, and maps it into the address space. It returns the virtual address of the allocated region. We then sort the regions by start address, so that we can easily find a free region in the future. (Ideally, the standard library should provide a sorted container that we can use here, but for now, we'll just sort the regions manually after adding a new one.)

We also need a way to add existing VM regions to an address space. We'll need this to add the existing kernel VM regions (code/data and stack) to its address space.

# src/kernel/vmm.nim

proc vmAddRegion*(space: var VMAddressSpace, start: VirtAddr, npages: uint64) =
  space.regions.add VMRegion(start: start, npages: npages)

Kernel address space

The kernel itself needs its own address space. Let's create a global variable kspace to track it.

# src/kernel/vmm.nim
...

const
  KernelSpaceMinAddress* = 0xffff800000000000'u64.VirtAddr
  KernelSpaceMaxAddress* = 0xffffffffffffffff'u64.VirtAddr
  UserSpaceMinAddress* = 0x0000000000000000'u64.VirtAddr
  UserSpaceMaxAddress* = 0x00007fffffffffff'u64.VirtAddr

var
  kspace*: VMAddressSpace

proc vmInit*(physMemoryVirtualBase: uint64, physAlloc: PhysAlloc) =
  physicalMemoryVirtualBase = physMemoryVirtualBase
  pmalloc = physAlloc
  kspace = VMAddressSpace(
    minAddress: KernelSpaceMinAddress,
    maxAddress: KernelSpaceMaxAddress,
    regions: @[],
    pml4: getActivePML4(),
  )

Let's also add the existing kernel VM regions to it (code/data and stack).

# src/kernel/main.nim
...

proc KernelMain(bootInfo: ptr BootInfo) {.exportc.} =
  ...

  debug "kernel: Initializing virtual memory manager "
  vmInit(bootInfo.physicalMemoryVirtualBase, pmm.pmAlloc)
  vmAddRegion(kspace, bootInfo.kernelImageVirtualBase.VirtAddr, bootInfo.kernelImagePages)
  vmAddRegion(kspace, bootInfo.kernelStackVirtualBase.VirtAddr, bootInfo.kernelStackPages)
  debugln "[success]"

Creating a task

Creating a task involves the following steps:

  1. Creating a VM address space and allocating a page table
  2. Mapping the task image (code and data) into the task page table
  3. Mapping the kernel space into the task page table
  4. Allocating and mapping a user stack (in user space)
  5. Allocating and mapping a kernel stack (in kernel space)
  6. Creating an interrupt stack frame on the kernel stack (for switching to user mode)
  7. Setting the rsp field to the interrupt stack frame

This seems like a lot of steps, but it's not too bad. Let's add a createTask proc to the tasks module to do all this. We'll also add a createStack helper proc to allocate a stack in a particular address space.

# src/kernel/tasks.nim

proc createStack*(space: var VMAddressSpace, npages: uint64, mode: PageMode): TaskStack =
  let stackPtr = vmalloc(space, npages, paReadWrite, mode)
  if stackPtr.isNone:
    raise newException(Exception, "tasks: Failed to allocate stack")
  result.data = cast[ptr UncheckedArray[uint64]](stackPtr.get)
  result.size = npages * PageSize
  result.bottom = cast[uint64](result.data) + result.size

proc createTask*(
  imageVirtAddr: VirtAddr,
  imagePhysAddr: PhysAddr,
  imagePageCount: uint64,
  entryPoint: VirtAddr
): Task =
  new(result)

  let taskId = nextId
  inc nextId

  var uspace = VMAddressSpace(
    minAddress: UserSpaceMinAddress,
    maxAddress: UserSpaceMaxAddress,
    pml4: cast[ptr PML4Table](new PML4Table)
  )

  # map task image
  mapRegion(
    pml4 = uspace.pml4,
    virtAddr = imageVirtAddr,
    physAddr = imagePhysAddr,
    pageCount = imagePageCount,
    pageAccess = paReadWrite,
    pageMode = pmUser,
  )

  # map kernel space
  var kpml4 = getActivePML4()
  for i in 256 ..< 512:
    uspace.pml4.entries[i] = kpml4.entries[i]

  # create user and kernel stacks
  let ustack = createStack(uspace, 1, pmUser)
  let kstack = createStack(kspace, 1, pmSupervisor)

  # create interrupt stack frame on the kernel stack
  var index = kstack.size div 8
  kstack.data[index - 1] = cast[uint64](DataSegmentSelector) # SS
  kstack.data[index - 2] = cast[uint64](ustack.bottom) # RSP
  kstack.data[index - 3] = cast[uint64](0x202) # RFLAGS
  kstack.data[index - 4] = cast[uint64](UserCodeSegmentSelector) # CS
  kstack.data[index - 5] = cast[uint64](entryPoint) # RIP

  result.id = taskId
  result.space = uspace
  result.ustack = ustack
  result.kstack = kstack
  result.rsp = cast[uint64](kstack.data[index - 5].addr)

Most of this code is not new, we just put it together in one place. The only new thing is calling vmalloc to allocate the user stack and kernel stack (which in turn allocates the backing physical memory). We no longer need to create global arrays to statically allocate the stacks.

Switching to a task

The part responsible for switching to a task was at the end of the KernelMainInner proc. Let's move it to the tasks module.

# src/kernel/tasks.nim

proc switchTo*(task: var Task) {.noreturn.} =
  tss.rsp0 = task.kstack.bottom
  let rsp = task.rsp
  setActivePML4(task.space.pml4)
  asm """
    mov rbp, 0
    mov rsp, %0
    iretq
    :
    : "r"(`rsp`)
  """

We update tss.rsp0 to point to the kernel stack (so it can be used when the task switches to kernel mode), set the active page table to the task's page table, set the rsp register to the tasks's rsp field (which should point to the interrupt stack frame), and then execute iretq to switch to the task.

Trying it out

We can now replace a big chunk of the code we had in KernelMainInner with a call to createTask and switchTo.

# src/kernel/main.nim
...

proc KernelMain(bootInfo: ptr BootInfo) {.exportc.} =
  ...

  debugln "kernel: Creating user task"
  var task = createTask(
    imageVirtAddr = UserImageVirtualBase.VirtAddr,
    imagePhysAddr = bootInfo.userImagePhysicalBase.PhysAddr,
    imagePageCount = bootInfo.userImagePages,
    entryPoint = UserImageVirtualBase.VirtAddr
  )

  debug "kernel: Initializing Syscalls "
  syscallInit(task.kstack.bottom)
  debugln "[success]"

  debugln "kernel: Switching to user mode"
  switchTo(task)

Let's try it out.

kernel: Initializing GDT [success]
kernel: Initializing IDT [success]
kernel: Creating user task
kernel: Initializing Syscalls [success]
kernel: Switching to user mode
syscall: num=2
syscall: print
user: Hello from user mode!
syscall: num=1
syscall: exit: code=0

Great! It's nice to be able to encapsulate all the task information in a Task object, and to be able to create a task and switch to it with just a few lines of code.

There's one thing that I still don't like, which is that we initialize the system calls with the kernel stack of the task. The system call entry point should be able to switch to the current task's kernel stack on its own, without relying on a global variable for the kernel stack. Once we start having multiple tasks, we have to be able to switch to the kernel stack of the current task.

Tracking the current task

We can solve this problem by tracking the current task in a global variable. Let's add a currentTask variable to the tasks module, and set it in the switchTo proc. One thing we'll do differently here is that we'll add the exportc pragma to this variable, so that we can access it from inline assembly later.

# src/kernel/tasks.nim

var
  currentTask* {.exportc.}: Task

proc switchTo*(task: var Task) {.noreturn.} =
  currentTask = task
  ...

Now, we can change the system call entry point to switch to the current task's kernel stack.

# src/kernel/syscalls.nim

import tasks
...

var
  syscallTable: array[256, SyscallHandler]
  tss {.importc.}: TaskStateSegment
  currentTask {.importc.}: Task

proc syscallEntry() {.asmNoStackFrame.} =
  asm """
    # switch to kernel stack
    mov %0, rsp
    mov rsp, %1

    ...

    # switch to user stack
    mov rsp, %0

    sysretq
    : "+r"(`currentTask`->rsp)
    : "m"(`currentTask`->kstack.bottom)
    : "rcx", "r11", "rdi", "rsi", "rdx", "rcx", "r8", "r9", "rax"
  """








 













 
 


We can now remove the argument to syscallInit.

# src/kernel/syscalls.nim
...

proc syscallInit*() =
  ...

And make the corresponding change in KernelMainInner. Also, since we don't need the kernel stack to initialize system calls anymore, we can move the call to syscallInit before creating the task.

# src/kernel/main.nim

proc KernelMainInner(bootInfo: ptr BootInfo) =
  ...

  debug "kernel: Initializing Syscalls "
  syscallInit()
  debugln "[success]"

  debugln "kernel: Creating user task"
  var task = createTask(
    imageVirtAddr = UserImageVirtualBase.VirtAddr,
    imagePhysAddr = bootInfo.userImagePhysicalBase.PhysAddr,
    imagePageCount = bootInfo.userImagePages,
    entryPoint = UserImageVirtualBase.VirtAddr
  )

  debugln "kernel: Switching to user mode"
  switchTo(task)

  ...

Much simpler. Let's try it out.

kernel: Initializing GDT [success]
kernel: Initializing IDT [success]
kernel: Initializing Syscalls [success]
kernel: Creating user task
kernel: Switching to user mode
syscall: num=2
syscall: print
user: Hello from user mode!
syscall: num=1
syscall: exit: code=0

All good! We're in a much better place than we were before.

Ideally, we should now be able to create multiple tasks and switch between them. But, since we're creating a single address space OS, we need to be able to load tasks at different virtual addresses. So far, we've been using a fixed virtual address for the user task; i.e. the task image is not relocatable. This means we have to link every user program at a different virtual address, which is not ideal. Traditional operating systems use a separate address space for each task, so linking the task image at a fixed virtual address is not a problem. In our case, we need to make the task image relocatable, so that we can load it at an arbitrary virtual address. That's what we'll do next.

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